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Linguistic Research Essay

When does language begin? In the middle 1960s, under the influence of Chomsky’s vision of linguistics, the first child language researchers assumed that language begins when words (or morphemes) are combined. (The reading by Halliday has some illustrative citations concerning this narrow focus on â€Å"structure. †) So our story begins with what is colloquially known as the â€Å"two-word stage. † The transition to 2-word utterances has been called â€Å"perhaps, the single most disputed issue in the study of language development† (Bloom, 1998). A few descriptive points: Typically children start to combine words when they are between 18 and 24 months of age. Around 30 months their utterances become more complex, as they add additional words and also affixes and other grammatical morphemes. These first word-combinations show a number of characteristics. First, they are systematically simpler than adult speech. For instance, function words are generally not used. Notice that the omission of inflections, such as -s, -ing, -ed, shows that the child is being systematic rather than copying. If they were simply imitating what they heard, there is no particular reason why these grammatical elements would be omitted. Conjunctions (and), articles (the, a), and prepositions (with) are omitted too. But is this because they require extra processing, which the child is not yet capable of? Or do they as yet convey nothing to the child—can she find no use for them? Second, as utterances become more complex and inflections are added, we find the famous â€Å"over-regularization†Ã¢â‚¬â€which again shows, of course, that children are systematic, not simply copying what they here. Chomsky’s Influence Research on child language was behavioristic in the years that preceded Chomsky’s critique of Skinner, and his publication of Syntactic Structures: â€Å"though there had been precedents for setting problems in the study of child language acquisition at a more abstract, cognitive level by continental scholars–most notably, Roman Jacobson (e. g. , 1941/1968)–much of the research on child language acquisition at midcentury was influenced to a greater or lesser degree by the highly concrete, behaviorist orientation of B. F. Skinner and others. Two events were of major important in the change from behaviorist to cognitive thinking in research on child language. The first was Chomsky’s classic review (1959) of Verbal Behavior, Skinner’s major book-length work on the learning and use of language; the second Handout for Psy 598-02, summer 2001 Packer Two-Word Utterances 2 was the detailed longitudinal study of the acquisition of English by three young children conducted over a 17-month period by Roger Brown and others in the early 1960s (Brown, 1973). † Ritchie, W. C. , & Bhatia, T. K. (1999). Child language acquisition: Introduction, foundations, and overview. In W. C. Ritchie & T. K. Bhatia (Eds. ), Handbook of child language acquisition, (pp. 3-30). San Diego: Academic Press, p. 3-4 note 2. â€Å"A child who has learned a language has developed an internal representation of a system of rules† (Chomsky, 1965, p. 25). The psychologist’s task, it follows, is to determine what the child’s rules are. â€Å"The linguist constructing a grammar for a language is in effect proposing a hypothesis concerning the internalized system† (Chomsky, 1968, p.23). Up to the 1950s, people simply counted characteristics such as sentence complexity, proportion of grammatical utterances, etc. After Chomsky, the search was on for child grammars, assumed to be universal. Roger Brown’s Research In 1956 Roger Brown heard Chomsky for the first time, speaking at Yale. In 1962 he began a five-year research project on children’s language at Harvard University. The historical significance of Brown’s laboratory at Harvard can hardly be exaggerated. The names of students and colleagues who worked with Brown pop up all the time, to this day, in psycholinguistic research: the list includes Jean Berko Gleason, Ursula Bellugi, David McNeill, Dan Slobin, Courtney Cazden, Richard Cromer, Jill de Villiers, Michael Maratsos, Melissa Bowerman, Eleanor Rosche, Sue Ervin (now Ervin-Tripp), Steven Pinker. Brown set out to write grammars for each of the stages of language development, by looking at the distribution of forms and construction patterns in spontaneous speech. In most cases the data allow for more than one  grammatical description. â€Å"The description to be preferred, of course, is the one that corresponds to the way the speaker’s linguistic knowledge is structured, the one that determines the kinds of novel utterance he can produce or understand, how he constructs their meanings, and what his intuitions are about grammatical well-formedness† (Bowerman, 1988, p. 28) â€Å"Every child processes the speech to which he is exposed so as to induce from it a latent structure. This latent rule structure is so general that a child can spin out its implications all his life long†¦. The discovery of latent structure is the greatest of the processes involved in language acquisition, and the most difficult to understand† (Brown & Bellugi, 1964, p. 314) Brown collected samples of spontaneous speech from three children, given the pseudonyms Adam, Eve, and Sarah. The corpus of collected data can be found in the Packer Two-Word Utterances 3 CHILDES archive. Eve was visited from age 18m to 26m, Adam from 27m to 42m, Sarah from 27m to 48m. Dan Slobin described the project: â€Å"We paid close attention to the auxiliary system and to word-order patterns, because these had played a central role in Syntactic Structures. We kept track of sentence types—affirmative, negative, and questions—in which use of auxiliaries and word order would vary. Linguistic growth was assessed in terms of things to be added to childish sentences to make them adult-like: the additions of omitted functors (inflections, prepositions, articles, and the like) and transformational operations. We did not categorize utterances in terms of communicative intent—that is, in terms of semantics or speech acts or extended discourse skills—and so we did not look for growth in terms of additions or enrichment of such abilities. Our central concern was with syntax and morphology, with some later interest in prosody. We worried about such questions as whether child grammar was finite state or transformational, and whether syntactic ‘kernels’ were the first sentence forms to appear in child speech† (Slobin, 1988, p. 11). Mean Length of Utterance This simple measure of syntactic complexity was introduced by Roger Brown. Table 7. Rules for calculating mean length of utterance and upper bound (Brown, 1973, p. 54) 1. Start with the second page of the transcription unless that page involves a recitation of some kind. In this latter case start with the first recitation-free stretch. Count the first100 utterances satisfying the following rules. 2. Only fully transcribed utterances are used; none with blanks. Portions of utterances, entered in parentheses to indicate doubtful transcription, are used. 3. Include all exact utterance repetitions (marked with a plus sign in records). Stuttering is marked as repeated efforts at a single word; count the word once in the most complete form produced. In the few cases where a word is produced for emphasis or the like (no, no, no) count each occurrence. 4. Do not count such fillers as mm or oh, but do count no, yeah, and hi. 5. All compound words (two or more free morphemes), proper names, and ritualized reduplications count as single words. Examples: birthday, rackety-boom, choo-choo, quack-quack, night-night, pocketbook, see saw. Justification is that no evidence that the constituent morphemes function as such for these children. 6. Count as one morpheme all irregular pasts of the verb (got, did, went, saw). Justification is that there is no evidence that the child relates these to present forms. 7.  Count as one morpheme all diminutives (doggie, mommie) because these children at least do not seem to use the suffix productively. Diminutives are the standard forms used by the child. 8. Count as separate morphemes all auxiliaries (is, have, will, can, must, would). Also all catenatives: gonna, wanna, hafta. These latter counted as single morphemes rather than as going to or want to because evidence is that they function so for the children. Count as separate morphemes all inflections, for example, possessive {s}, plural {s}, third person singular {s}, regular past {d}, progressive {ing}. 9. The range count follows the above rules but is always calculated for the total Packer Two-Word Utterances 4 transcription rather than for 100 utterances. The title of Brown’s 1973 book, summarizing of a decade of research (his own and other people’s), was A First Language: The Early Stages. A follow-up was planned, describing the â€Å"later† stages, but never written. What is this book about? â€Å"It is about knowledge; knowledge concerning grammar and the meanings coded by grammar†¦. The book primarily presents evidence that knowledge of the kind described develops in an approximately invariant form in all children, through at different rates. There is also evidence that the primary determinants of the order are the relative semantical and grammatical complexity† (58) Here is an early attempt to write a â€Å"syntactic† grammar of two-word speech, first describing only 89 observed utterances (Table 4), then going â€Å"beyond the obtained sentences to the syntactic classes they suggest (Table 5) (Brown & Fraser, 1964, pp. 59, 61): Packer Two-Word Utterances 5 Brown’s Two Main Findings Two main findings are described in A First Language. 1. The â€Å"Semantic Look† of Stage I Speech First, that the organization of early word-combinations cannot be described in purely syntactic terms. Brown and his coworkers quickly had to change direction. Syntactic descriptions didn’t suffice. That’s to say, Stage I constructions couldn’t be satisfactorily explained either as â€Å"telegraphic† speech, or in terms of â€Å"pivot-open† grammar. Telegraphic Speech One of the first ways of characterizing 2-word utterances was to say that they omitted â€Å"function words,† such as articles, auxiliary verbs, inflexions, prepositions, and the copula (is). The words that are spoken tend to be nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and their order tends to resemble the order in what one presumes the adult sentence would be. These characteristics make early utterances sound like telegrams. But inflections are omitted too, and these are free in telegrams. And a few functors such as more, no, you and off are found. More important problems are that this description uses adult categories. And it doesn’t explain the productive character of children’s two-word utterances. Pivot-Open grammars Martin Braine suggested that children have simple rules they use to generate two-word utterances. Each pair of words selects one from a small set of words—called â€Å"pivots†Ã¢â‚¬â€that occur in many utterances, and always in a fixed position (either the first word, or the second). For example, â€Å"Allgone† is a first-position pivot: allgone egg, allgone shoe, but not shoe allgone. A second-position pivot â€Å"off†: shirt off, water off, etc. The choice of the second word is more â€Å"open. † Packer Two-Word Utterances 6 But â€Å"the rules simply do not fit the evidence; pivot words do occur in isolation, pivots occur in combination with one another, sentences longer than two-words are fairly common in I, and there is distributional evidence which indicates that more than two word-classes exist† (Brown, 1973, p. 110). Brown and his colleagues noted that adults â€Å"expand† children’s utterances. These expansions don’t seem effective in teaching the child anything new (Cazden, 1965). But they do provide important clues to the researcher. If one assumes that adult expansions are generally accurate interpretations of the child’s utterance, then pivot-open grammars are inadequate because they underestimate the child’s knowledge. (Both would simply be described as O + O. ) For example, Lois Bloom showed that when one attended to context the utterance mommy sock was used by her child in two different ways. The first could be glossed as â€Å"It’s mommy’s sock,† while the second could be glossed â€Å"Mommy is putting on your sock. † A pivot-open grammar would not be able to distinguish these two. From Non-Semantic (Lean) Grammars to Semantic (Rich) Grammars So Brown and his co-workers started instead to describe two-word utterances in semantic terms. They employed a process that Lois Bloom called â€Å"rich interpretation†: using all the contextual information available to infer what the child meant by an utterance. As Lois Bloom said, â€Å"evaluation of the children’s language began with the basic assumption that it was possible to reach the semantics of children’s sentences by considering nonlinguistic information from context and behavior in relation to linguistic performance. This is not to say that the inherent ‘meaning’ or the child’s actual semantic intent was obtainable for any given utterance. The semantic interpretation inherent in an utterance is part of the intuition of the child and cannot be ‘known’ with authority. The only claim that could be made was the evaluation of an utterance in relation to the context in which it occurred provided more information for analyzing intrinsic structure than would a simple distributional analysis of the recorded corpus† (Bloom, 1970, p. 10). The result was the identification of a small set of basic semantic relations that the children’s utterances seems to be expressing. The eight most common of these are summarized in the following table (cf. Brown, p.193-197): â€Å"Major Meanings at Stage I† Two-Word Utterance mommy come; daddy sit drive car; eat grape mommy sock; baby book go park; sit chair cup table; toy floor my teddy; mommy dress Semantic relation expressed agent + action action + object agent + object action + location entity + location possessor + possession Packer Two-Word Utterances 7 box shiny; crayon big dat money; dis telephone entity + attribute demonstrative + entity It seems that children when they first combine words talk about objects: pointing them out, naming them, indicating their location, what they are  like, who owns them, and who is doing things to them. They also talk about actions performed by people, and the objects and locations of these actions. Brown suggested that these are the concepts the child has just finished differentiating in the sensorimotor stage. This kind of semantic characterization of children’s speech continues in current research. For example, the following table is redrawn from Golinkoff & Hirsh-Pasek, (1999, p. 151. ) The terminology differs a little, and Recurrence and Disappearance have been added (or at least were not in Brown’s â€Å"top eight†), but other than this the picture is the same. Two-Word Utterance Mommy sock Probable meaning expressed Possessor-possessed or Agent (acting on) an object Recurrence Disappearance or Nonexistence Action on object Agent doing an action Object at location Object and property Naming Possible gloss â€Å"That’s Mommy’s sock† or â€Å"Mommy, put on my sock† â€Å"I want more juice† â€Å"The outside is allgone† (said after front door is closed) â€Å"(Dad) is throwing the toy chicken† â€Å"The car is going† â€Å"The sweater is on the chair† â€Å"The dog is little† â€Å"That is Susan† or â€Å"Her name is Susan†. More juice! Allgone outside Throw chicken Car go Sweater chair Little dog That Susan What Grammar to Write? How to represent the knowledge that underlies children’s utterances viewed in these semantic terms? What kind of grammar can one write? Brown (1973) reviewed several possibilities are concluded that â€Å"No fully explicit grammar proves to be possible† (p. 244). Bloom wrote essentially syntactic grammars, which however included information necessary to give an appropriate semantic interpretation. Schlesinger (assigned reading) wrote a semantic grammar. Antinucci & Paresi (optional reading) wrote a grammar that included some pragmatic information too. The following is a grammar for one of the three children Bloom studied: it â€Å"consists of (1) the phrase structure, (2) lexico feature rules, and (3) transformations (Bloom, 1970, pp. 67-68): Packer Two-Word Utterances 8 Packer Two-Word Utterances 9 Criticism of Interpretive Analysis An interesting criticism of these semantic analyses was made by Howe in 1976. Howe noticed a lack of consistency across semantic categorization of two-word utterances by Bloom, Slobin, Schlesinger and Brown, and suggested that the identification of semantic relations actually tells us more about adult interpretation of children’s speech that is does about what the child has in mind. â€Å"Overall, the existence of contradictions between the categories presented in Table 1, the fact that some of the categories are not always mutually exclusive and the fact that it is hard to demonstrate that some of the so-called ‘semantic’ distinctions are more than syntactic alternatives for expressing the same meaning, make it unlikely that Bloom, Brown, Schlesinger and Slobin have produced an adequate categorization of the meanings common to the speech of children at the beginnings of word combination or indeed of adults†¦. [A]ll four writers tacitly assumed that the two-word utterances of young children always express a meaning adults might express using these words and hence their aim was to specify which of the meanings adults might express occur in the first word combinations† (Howe, 1976, p. 34). Howe asserted that (as she later put it) â€Å"there was no evidence that children at the beginning of word combination recognize a world containing agents, locations, and so on† (Howe, 1981, p. 443). It is interesting to read the next rounds of this debate: Bloom, Capatides, & Tackeff (1981), Golinkoff (1981), and Howe’s reply (1981). Bloom is witheringly derisive (and seems to miss the point of Howe’s article), Golinkoff is more constructive. Howe accepts Golinkoff’s suggestion that non-linguistic data will show us how a child understands their situation, and she concludes that so far the research shows â€Å"that children do not discover that language encodes roles [played in actions and states of affairs, as distinct from entities involved in actions and states of affairs], until some time after their first word combinations† (451). But I  think there’s a larger point here that I’ll explore in class. Brown’s conclusions about Stage I Brown drew the following conclusions about Stage I: â€Å"The Stage I child operates as if all major sentence constituents were optional, and this does not seem to be because of some absolute ceiling on sentence complexity. In Stage II and after we shall see that he operates, often for long periods, as if grammatical morphemes were optional. Furthermore, the child’s omissions are by no means limited to the relatively lawful omissions which also occur in adult speech. He often leaves out what is linguistically obligatory. This suggests to me that the child expects always to be understood if he produces any appropriate words at all. And in fact we find that he would usually be right in this expectation as long as he speaks at home, in familiar surroundings, and to family members who know his history and inclinations. Stage I speech may then be said to be well adapted to its communicative purpose, well adapted but narrowly adapted. In new surroundings and with less familiar addresses it would  Packer Two-Word Utterances 10 often fail. This suggests that a major dimension of linguistic development is learning to express always and automatically certain things (agent, action, number, tense, and so on) even though these meanings may be in many particular contexts quite redundant. The child who is going to move out into the world, as children do, must learn to make his speech broadly and flexible adaptive† (Brown, 1973, p. 244-245). 2. The Acquisition of Grammatical Morphemes in Stage II  The second major finding that Brown reported in A First Language was that â€Å"a set of little words and inflections begins to appear: a few prepositions, especially in and on, an occasional article, an occasional copula am, is, or are, the plural and possessive inflections on the noun, the progressive, past, and third person present indicative inflections on the verb. All these, like an intricate sort of ivy, begin to grow up between and upon the major construction blocks, the nouns and the verbs, to which Stage I is largely limited† (Brown, 1973, p.  249). Brown found that the 14 of these grammatical morphemes of English that he selected for detailed study were acquired in a fixed and universal order. These are the grammatical morphemes we discussed in an earlier class: affixes like –s, -ed, {PAST}, and small function words like on, in, the. We’ve already noted that these morphemes are omitted from the first word-combinations. Brown studied the way they are gradually added to a child’s speech. This takes place in what he called Stage II. The child begins to explicitly mark notions such as number, specificity, tense, aspect, mood, using the inflections or unbound morphemes. Of course, Brown was studying only three children, but the finding of invariant order has stood up when larger numbers of children have been studied. For example, de Villiers and de Villiers (1973) replicated his finding with a sample of twenty-one children. Brown offered evidence that the order of their acquisition was determined by their linguistic complexity. (That’s to say, the number of features each of them encoded.) (Though he noted too that children differ greatly in their rate of acquisition of these morphemes. ) Order 1. 2/3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Morpheme present progressive prepositions plural irregular past tense possessive copula uncontractible articles regular past tense third-person present tense regular Example singing; playing in the cup; on the floor books; dolls broke; went Mommy’s chair; Susie’s teddy This is my book The teddy; A table walked; played he climbs; Mommy cooks Packer Two-Word Utterances 11 11. 12. 13. 14.  third-person present tense irregular auxiliary uncontractible copula contractible auxiliary contractible John has three cookies She was going to school; Do you like me? I’m happy; you are special Mommy’s going shopping Brown examined each utterance is see whether it required any of these morphemes to make it fully grammatical by adult standards, attending to both linguistic and nonlinguistic context. E. g. , when the child points to a book and says that book, Brown inferred that there should have been a copula (‘s or is) and an article (a). Then he checked how many of these obligatory positions for each morpheme were actually filled with the appropriate morphemes at each age. Acquisition—defined as the age at which a morpheme is supplied in 90 percent of its obligatory positions—was remarkably constant across Brown’s three subjects. Why did Brown study these morphemes? Presumably because they are at first omitted. But more importantly, he was trying to test the hypothesis that children are taught grammar by adults. And Brown found that frequency of exposure (in adult speech) was not a predictor. For example, adults used articles more frequently than prepositions, but children acquired these in the opposite order. Brown suggested that linguistic complexity does predict acquisition. The morphemes differ in both semantic complexity (the number of semantic features encoded) and syntactic complexity (the number of rules each requires). For example, the copula verb encodes both number and temporality. These two types of complexity are highly correlated, so they cannot be teased apart, but in either case they predict order of acquisition. The other important change that occurs in Stage II is that, as utterances grow in complexity, the child begins to combine two or more of the basic semantic relations from Stage I: Adam hit ball = agent + action + object = agent + action, plus action + object The Other Stages of Language Acquisition Each of the five stages that Brown distinguished is named for the linguistic process that is the major new development occurring in that stage (â€Å"or for an exceptionally elaborate development of a process at that stage† p. 59). Thus we have: Packer Two-Word Utterances 12. Stage I. Semantic Roles & Syntactic Relations. MLU: 1. 0 – 2. 0 agent, patient, instrument, locative etc. expressed (in simple sentences) by linear order, syntactic relations, prepositions or postpositions. Stage II. Grammatical Morphemes & the Modulation of Meaning. MLU: 2. 0 – 2. 5 Stage III. Modalities of the Simple Sentence. MLU: 2. 5 Next the child forms transformations of simple declarative sentences: yes-no interrogatives, question request, negation, imperative. During the earlier stages children use intonation to mark different sentence modalities. Now they begin to use morphosemantic devices to mark negatives, questions, and imperatives. Stage IV. Embedding of Sentences One simple sentence will now become used as a grammatical constituent or in a semantic role within another sentence. Stage V. Coordination of Simple Sentences & Propositional Relations Sentences are linked together with connector words. Individual Differences Brown also noted some individual differences among Adam, Eve, and Sarah. Two of the children combined V with N, and also used N for possession: eat meat, throw ball, mommy sock. But the child third combined V (or objects of possession) with pronouns: eat it, do this one, my teddy. These two strategies were found by other researchers too. Catherine Nelson called them pronominal & nominal strategies (they have also been called â€Å"holistic & analytic†; â€Å"expressive & referential†), and noted that they could be seen in one-word utterances also: some children tend to produce single-word utterances that are nouns, other children tend to use social or personal words such as hi, bye, and please. Subsequent research has explored the connections between these strategies and later development, cognitive style, and input differences (cf. Shore, 1995. Individual differences in language development, Sage). However, these strategies converge over time. By MLU=2. 5, sentence subjects (agents) are typically pronominal, and predicate objects (patients) are typically nominal. Packer Two-Word Utterances 13 Directions After Brown By the mid-1970s grammar-writing was dying out. Incorrect predictions had discouraged researchers, as had the problem of indeterminacy: the fact that more than one grammar could be written. Interest was growing in other considerations: in the role of semantics; in cognitive precursors to syntax, and to language in general; in mother-child interaction; and in the pragmatic uses to which early speech is put. In the view of some people, linguistic structures and operations became neglected. 1. How Does the Child go from Semantics to Syntax? We’ve seen that Brown’s research found that the grammar of children’s early word combinations was better described in semantic than in syntactic terms. If this is so, how does a child make the transition from a semantic grammar to the adult grammar? Researchers continue to argue about this. Steven Pinker (1984, 1987) suggests that children use semantics to enter the syntactic system of their language. In simple â€Å"basic sentences† the correspondence between things and names maps onto the syntactic category of nouns. Words for physical attributes and changes of state map onto verbs. Semantic agents are almost always the grammatical subjects of sentences. This semantic-syntactic correspondence in early utterances provides a key to abstract syntactic categories of grammar. Paul Bloom has argued that children actually are using syntactic categories from the start, and he cites as evidence for this the fact that children will they place adjectives before nouns but not pronouns: big dog but not: * small she Some linguists have offered a syntactic description of Stage I utterances. They argue that at this stage children merely have a lexicon and a limited set of phrase structure rules in deep-structure. They lack functional categories such as INFL (inflectionals) and COMP (complementizers). No transformations exist at this stage: instead, elements of the deep structure are assigned thematic (i. e. semantic) roles to yield the surfacestructure. And they have proposed that the lack of grammatical subjects in Stage I utterances reflects the default setting of a â€Å"null-subject parameter. † (Since in languages like Italian and Spanish a subject is optional. ) Lois Bloom (1990b) has suggested that children simply have a more limited processing capacity at this age. Sentence subjects are often provided by context, and so can be safely omitted. Dan Slobin has proposed that â€Å"children create grammars in which clearly identifiable surface forms map onto basic semantic categories† (1988, p. 15). Packer Two-Word Utterances 14 For example, locative prepositions—in, on, under—are omitted in early child speech. They are used earlier in languages when they are encoded more saliently—as noun suffixes or as postpositions following nouns. At the same time, there is a common order of emergence across languages: simple topological notions of proximity, containment and support (in, on, under, next to), with locative relations embodying notions of perspective (back, front) always later. Slobin infers that â€Å"conceptual development provides the content for linguistic expression, while linguistic discovery procedures are necessary for working out the mapping of content according to conventions of particular languages† (p. 15). Slobin has looked carefully at the English grammatical morphemes—and their equivalents in other languages—to see how they are used before they are completely acquired (by Brown’s 90% criterion). He finds that children generally use the morphemes systematically, though their use is still â€Å"incomplete† by adult standards. For example, a Russian child applied the accusative inflection only to nouns that â€Å"were objects of direct, physical manipulation, such as ‘give,’ ‘carry,’ ‘put,’ and ‘throw,’ omitting the accusative for less manipulative verbs such as ‘read’ and ‘see. ’† Children will â€Å"organize systems of pronouns and case inflections; but, to begin with, children will organize these various forms to express particular, child-oriented speech functions† (p. 18). They are using the resources of the adult language to mark distinctions that are salient to them. Slobin has also proposed some â€Å"universal language-learning principles. † These are an attempt to explain observed cross-language regularities in order of acquisition. â€Å"According to Slobin, the child has certain concepts, based on cognitive growth, that are expressed through the language system. Using certain principles of acquisition, the child scans the language code to discover the means of comprehension and production† (Owens, 2001, p. 214-215). 1. Pay attention to the ends of words 2. Phonological forms of words can be systematically modified 3. Pay attention to the order of words and morphemes 4. Avoid interruption and rearrangement of linguistic units 5. Underlying semantic relations should be marked overtly and clearly 6. Avoid exceptions 7. The use of grammatical markers should make semantic sense Knowledge of Verb syntax Lois Bloom asserts that learning the argument structure of verbs, and the syntactic differences for different thematic relations is the foundation for acquiring a grammar. Verbs play a central role in further multiword utterances. Opinions differ, however, on how knowledge of verb syntax is acquired. Bloom suggests that the first verbs are those that name actions (do, make, push, eat). Nouns and pronouns take thematic roles (agent, object) in relation to these actions. Bloom says that this implies that children’s â€Å"theories† of objects, space, and causation are important here. Packer Two-Word Utterances 15 A few all-purpose verbs—â€Å"pro-verbs†Ã¢â‚¬â€are used for most early sentences. E. g. , do, go. With these, verb argument structures, verb inflections, and Wh-questions are learned. Subsequently, the child adds the syntax for negation, noun- and verb-inflection, and questions. And then moves on to embedded verb phrases (â€Å"drink [Mommy juice]†) 2. From Semantics to Semantics Language involves a great deal of categorization. â€Å"The forms of language are themselves categories, and these forms are linked to a vast network of categorical distinctions in meaning and discourse function† (Bowerman, 1988, p. 28-29).

Field Trip Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Field Trip - Essay Example It plays an important part in the conservation of the Indian tiger. Open from the middle of November till mid of June, visitors can stay at Dhikala, which is located inside the Corbett National Park. Jeeps can be hired from Ramnagar, which travel to the Park and Dhikala. Buses also travel to Dhikala from the Ramnagar station. Alternately the route from Delhi - Moradabad, through Kashipur and finally Ramnagar, Corbett can be taken. The estimated distance is 280km, and the journey approximately takes 7 hours. [Jim Corbett National Park, 2002]. The reserve encompasses a total area of 1318.54 sq km. The area is divided into the Jim Corbett National Park, which constitutes about 520 sq km of the core area. The buffer region, covering 797.72 sq km of the total area is the reserve forest region. Elephant Safaris are the best way to explore the huge area of the reserve. Jim Corbett tiger reserve and National park geologically falls in the Outer and Shivalik foothills of the Himalayas. The park was known as the Ramganga National Park, after the tributary of Ganga that flows through the reserve from East till West, post India's independence in 1947. It was renamed as Jim Corbett National Park in 1956, to commemorate the memory of Jim Corbett. The "Project Tiger," conservation project to save the Indian Tiger and its habitat, was launched in 1973 from this park. The special attract Project Tiger The special attraction of the park is the Bengal Tiger, which is an endangered species. In fact the name of the park - Corbett, is after the famous hunter and naturalist Jim Corbett, who was known for the initiatives he took to save the tiger from extinction. "Project Tiger" was started with support from the World Wide Fund for Nature by Indian conservationist. The main objective was to protect the tiger from extinction. Corbett with its thick forest cover and plenty of "food" for the tigers - the number of animal species present and also replenished by the Ramganga acted as an apt destination for a natural habitat of the endangered species. [Riley 208] Geology The Chinji Stage and Kamlial Stage are the two types of geological formations that can be found in the Jim Corbett National Park. Red and maroon shades sandstones, sandstones of grey, purple and grey hues comprise the geological formations of the Park. The Chinji stage that characterizes the uppermost stage of the lower Siwalik geological formations consists of bright colored sandstones. The sandstones of the area are characterized by intercalations of siltstones. Geologists have estimated these to date back to the Miocene (varying between upper and mid) age. [Negi 50 - 51] The Garhwal group's lowermost formation is Rudraprayag. Black and grey colored slates and cherts; grey quartzite; compact, medium grained, grayish white and white quartzite comprise the Rudraprayag formation. Over the Rudraprayag formations are the Lameri formation. Divided into Lameri A, Lameri B and Lameri C these are mainly dolomite bands, slates and phyllites.

Capital Punishment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 4

Capital Punishment - Essay Example Capital punishment raises many issues concerning morality, where some people support it claiming that it is morally justified while others do not (BBC 2013). This paper will contend to show the reasons why capital punishment should be allowed based on the evidence given in the paper. Capital punishment is a legal process approved by a country, which permits for the termination of a criminal’s life, especially one who has committed murder. Capital punishment has been abolished in many countries including the United Kingdom. The United States of America is the only Western country that has not abolished capital punishment. The main questions raised about capital punishment concern the morality and whether the act deters crime. It is also debated that the act could possibly bring more good than harm, therefore, bringing an intense debate between its supporters and those who oppose (Janet and Oxley 2). Capital punishment is only utilised by the state, therefore, making it use by n on-state organisations like the Al shabaab, illegal. It is exclusively utilised as a penalty for especially heinous crimes such as murder, adultery, fraud, treason, and rape depending on the country. Many people find capital punishment morally unjustifiable but in the event of an atrocity towards their families, they support the process. Many countries have decided to abolish capital punishment due to the extended network of activists and lobby groups, who over the years have seen to it that capital punishment is abolished. The places which have not ceded to the demands of these activists are some Muslim countries like Iran and Iraq and some states of the United States of America. The United Nations does not support capital punishment as it stands for an individual’s right to life. Countries that have not succumbed to International pressure to ban capital punishment insist that the act is non-discriminatively and unarbitrary, therefore, helps keep everyone off some crimes due to its deterring effect (Dezhbakhsh and Shepherd 512). There are many people who consider capital punishment to be morally impermissible. Some debate that it is unconstitutional, barbaric and cruel. They claim to oppose capital punishment because it violates the human right to life, which is a fundamental right. They believe that human life is so important such that even the murderers’ lives should not be destroyed even after conducting heinous atrocities. Other people oppose capital punishment on the grounds that it the justice system is at time marred by mistakes, therefore, accusing some people falsely, which leads to the loss of innocent lives. They claim that the damage that is committed upon such individuals and their families would be irreversible, thus opposing capital punishment (BBC 2013). There are people who are opposed to capital punishment based on the theory that it reflects arbitrariness and discrimination. The antagonists contend that there is evidence parti cularly in America, where those charged with killing white people are four times more likely to be sentenced to capital punishment compared to those people who are charged with killing non-white people. This is evidence of racial discrimination and it is used to oppose the need for capital punishment in a country (Sunstein and Vermeule 2). Vengeance and retribution have been viewed as morally unjustifiable acts that cannot be used to support capital punishment. This is particularly common in religions where they do not justify the taking of

What strategies can policy makers employ to promote successful policy Essay

What strategies can policy makers employ to promote successful policy implementation Policies, policy makers and connection with history - Essay Example This process actually involves the translation of the objectives of the policy into the system. It has three basic elements which include creating responsibility or an agency who would handle this new responsibility. Secondly, there needs to be operational rules and guidelines for the policy program and personnel and resources need to be coordinated so that the intent of the policy is achieved. Thesis statement Policy implementation is the next step after adoption of a policy and they make or break the policy. There will be no effect on society if the policy is never implemented; however this is a complex procedure that has many facets and ingredients for success. Policy implementation Policies also have certain intended and unintended effects. Intended effects are those that aim to seek out a positive benefit from a policy and this could also be one of the ways that policies actually avoid the negative effects. That is why there is a standard and policy makers will always compare th eir policy against the standard to see whether it is above or below the par. An example could include the policy the State of California implemented which led to the increase in use of hybrid cars. The Federal Law provided tax cuts worth $1500 as well as special lanes to hybrid vehicles which led to an increase in the use of hybrid cars and this led to a positive effect or an intended effect. The government created an effect by taking an action which was the policy even though the option of ‘high-occupancy vehicle lanes’ is not available for new hybrid vehicles. (Suleiman, 1984) Negative side effects that are not intended are called ‘unintended’ and they are usually because policy making systems are usually complex. They may set the tax rate so high or so low that this deters money from the economy. Therefore the policy implementation fine combs the policy actions so that these unintended effects are taken care of; however it is impossible to remove the ent ire negative effects while implementation. (Yates, 1977) Policy making as aforementioned is the part where the government actually carries out and executes a particular policy that is adopted when it is required by the law or otherwise. The different agencies that are responsible for the respective policy areas come together and are given the formal responsibility for implementing the policy and this is usually the stage when the bill is no longer a bill but becomes a law. Once the government has made a public policy such as a rule, law, edict, statute or any regulation, the policy must be executed and monitored, administered and then it should be forced upon society so that it brings about the change that policy makers desire it to. The agency that is responsible for implementation is given the desired resources and the power to allow the new policy to be implemented smoothly, however this is usually not the case. But why is public policy implemented in the first place? Public poli cies are implemented so that there is some change in the population so that a certain public problem is resolved or at least ameliorated at the very least. The problem will continue to exist until the policy is carried out and once the policy is implemented, it will be evaluated to see if the results that were desired are being obtained and further revision and implantation can take place. Agencies of administration will carry out most of the work of the government and so they have an impact on the citizens of the county and are involved in policy implementa

Markting plan Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Markting plan - Assignment Example The plan will examine the external environment in which the organization is operating. After analyzing the environmental issues, internal strengths and external opportunities of the organization will be indentified depending on which the organization will be able to overcome its intrinsic weaknesses and underlying environmental threats. Marketing objectives will be formulated for the newly established business and accordingly marketing strategies will be selected so that the strategies can drive the organization towards achieving the pre-determined objectives. Once the strategies are formulated aligning with the organizational objectives, close supervision and monitoring should be exercised in order to ensure successful execution of the strategies incorporated. In this process, time to time review of the implementation process should also be done for assessing to what extend the policies are supporting the organization to meet its fundamental business objectives. Such evaluation will help the retailer to control those factors that are suspected to be reason behind the retail business to deviate from its elementary business goals. A comprehensive marketing plan is important in any industry before commencement of a new business or expanding in the existing industry segment or business line. Understanding the enormous growth potential in the retail industry, a small retailer is planning for business expansion in this industry segment (Blackwell 275). The retailer, though small in size at present, is expecting to establish a high end superstore with minimum human interaction, supported by superior technologies such as interactive interface, automatic locating of products, self-serve scanning and automatic checkout. Therefore, he is aware of the importance of preparing business plan well in advance. The paper will outline a blueprint of marketing plan for the retail superstore taking into account each

Discussing incentives to conserve marine biodiversity conservation Assignment - 1

Discussing incentives to conserve marine biodiversity conservation within the framework of impure public goods - Assignment Example e into limestone, the ability of the oceans to provide sustenance in the form of sea life to tens of millions around the globe, and the ability of these oceans to dissipate the heat that the sun emits forms an integral part of why the oceans and the marina diversity that is exhibited within them is of such extreme importance. Through such a level of understanding, the following discussion will be concentric upon defining what an impure public good is, the externalities associated with these impure public goods, the technology of public good supply, and the types of economic incentives that are created for impure public goods. Firstly, an impure public good is that which is represented to all members of society but one that dilutes the utility that an individual might otherwise gain from enjoying a completely and entirely â€Å"pure† public good. For instance, in the case of the world’s oceans and marine bio-diversity, an example of the impure public good would be the level of toxic waste that is dumped into these oceans each and every year. As this pollutes the environment and creates a hardship on the marine biodiversity that would otherwise be evidenced, the destruction to the environment decreases the utility that a person could stand to gain from this otherwise â€Å"pure† public good. The externalities to this are clear, food that is harvested from the world’s oceans then in turn is sickly and likely to diminish in overall quality; or at the worst – have high levels of toxins evidenced throughout their bodies. As a means of understanding the further nuances and dynamics of public goods, the weakest link rule denotes that the socially available amount equates to the minimum of the overall quantities that can individually be provided. By means of contrast and comparison, the â€Å"best shot† rule states that the socially available amount denotes the maximum individual quantity. Naturally, incentives, both positive and negative, can impact upon the

B300 Assignment 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

B300 Assignment 6 - Essay Example As organizations enter into different regions for their business needs they have to follow policies of the region. Regional peculiarities cannot be ignored in favor of centralized policy of the government. The phrase 'think globally and act locally' points to the same idea that organizations have to adapt their business policies according to the region where they have decided to go into operation. Middle East traditionally includes countries or regions in Southwest Asia and parts of North Africa. Persian Gulf is considered as the main centre the area around which is generally referred as Middle East. Bahrain, Egypt, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkey, the United Arab Emirates, Yemen, and Palestinian Territories are collectively known as Middle East. Multiculturalism is one important aspect of the emerging Middle East and Dubai in particular. For example, all kind of eateries and restaurants Italian, Chinese etc. can be found. Indians, Filipinos, Pakistanis, People from Arab countries and people from Western countries comprise the workforce in Dubai whether it is white collar or blue collar job. The new cultural wave of tolerance allows foreigners to spend wee hours of the night in a pub while at the same time call for five times prayers also fill the air of Dubai. Apart from Dubai, Middle East destinations like Egypt, Jordan, Israel, Morocco and Tunisia have always been known for tourist attractions. Middle East has emerged as one the fastest developing economies. Their move towards success would not have been possible if the states had not joined the global business environment and participated in economic activities. The fabric of the society is also changing as these countries are evolving in different areas of economy, culture, science and technology. Yet there are many cultural differences and nuances that managers must know when dealing internationally in this region. The region can be an attractive business venture considering the market available. Regional Factors Following important factors may need management consideration for conducting business in a particular region: Managing Politics: Political systems as well as government supervisions and regulations change when companies choose to operate in a certain region. Sometimes government officials and the general public and political activists view foreign companies as outsiders and are suspicious of their impact on economy as well as politics. This may be specifically true in certain Muslim Middle Eastern countries where mostly democracy is not in place and rules may be bent to please the government of the time. Companies have to be ware of government takeovers of property and acts of violence directed against the firm. The examples of such acts can be seen in Anti-American protests on famous American businesses. Since, such acts are not uncommon in Arab and Muslim world; companies must formulate special plans and programs against unexpected losses. Political instability, at times civil disorders and frequent changes of government are some of the common political phenomenon in the region. Political instab

The McKissack and McKissack Group Inc Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The McKissack and McKissack Group Inc - Essay Example McKissack has worked on various civil developments, fresh water and wastewater projects and have examined hundreds of miles of pipelines. Business strategy of McKissack has always been based on long term basis. And records show that over the past 100 years, McKissack has acquired and retained hundreds of clients through their excellent business relationships and customer retention. And they have achieved this through broad management approach and forming and achieving concrete strategic objectives. McKissack is a close knitted business entity which administers each project from its seed stage to its completion, while overseeing all the operations. McKissack is always looking for projects in the market that require innovative yet pragmatic and affordable construction solutions and the reason that gives them the courage to take such bold steps is their experiencing of completing thousands of projects in the past 100 years. Teamwork, quality and commitment have always been the hallmark of their business strategy that enables them to grow as an outstanding industry. The legacy of McKissack dates back to over two centuries when Moses McKissack (a slave) became an expert builder after learning the craftsmanship from his owner William McKissack, who was among the first contractor in the US. Moses McKissack, before dying in 1865, passed on his knowledge of structure to his son Gabriel Moses, who did the same by teaching the skill to his two sons; Moses III (born 1879) and Calvin (born 1890). When Moses III believed that he was skilled enough to start his own construction business, he moved to Nashville in 1905. He received education in architecture and engineering and in a short time got commission for structuring the Carnegie Library at Fisk University, which was the first major structure designed by a black American in America. After that assignment, he got recognition which landed him many more contracts of various colleges in the South and some Middle Tennesseeâ₠¬â„¢s better-quality homes (Governor A.H. Robert’s mansion was among them). In 1912, Calvin and Moses were the first individuals who were registered under the new licensing law with the State of Tennessee. The McKissack brothers did not stop there and proceeded to make Tennessee’s first black designing and building firm in 1922. They received national recognition when the US Government paid them $5.7 million to construct an air base at Tuskegee in Alabama. To this day, this contract remains the largest construction contract given to a black firm by the federal government. Moses McKissack had six sons who went into education, architecture, construction and law. Moses was invited to the Whitehouse to discuss the issue of national housing problem because of his expertise in architecture and construction in housing projects. This occurred during the reign of President Franklin Roosevelt. Calvin became the president of the McKissack firm after the death of his brother Moses who was succeeded by Moses’ son, Williams in 1968. McKissack flourished under the leadership of Williams who held on to the innovative ideas of his father and brought much praise to McKissack’s design and construction. Williams retired in 1983 and his wife took over the firm as Chief Executive Officer. Since then, she has brought

Prioritizing the IT Project Portfolio Paper Essay Example for Free

Prioritizing the IT Project Portfolio Paper Essay Lilas Web design is a fairly new business. Lila has about 45 employees, and is in the middle of interviewing for an IT project manager. The Information Technology (IT) project will play an important role in Lilas business. The new IT project manager will be looking into getting the Project Portfolio Management (PPM) tools. This tool will help in the supporting process for helping in selecting the right project. With the new PPm all of the new project will be selected and evaluated. The PPM will also help to identify those projects that have a good success. Lilas Web design has so many factors when thinking about prioritizing the IT projects. The PPm is a very powerful tool that Lilas Web design will have. The PPM will help focus on the management of each IT projects. The new IT project manager needs to evaluate the importance and review the strategic objectives. The IT manager will have to take a look at Lilas strategic plan. Strategic plan is where the IT project manager will strengthen operations, set priorities, focus energy, and work on the common goal of the company. This is so that the IT project can be evaluated through the following criteria. Will the project create or drives more revenue for the company. Will the project cut the cost of doing business? Is this project mandated by federal, country, state, and local law? Is there any competitor in business who has undertaken a similar project? The model that we will be using for helping with prioritizing information technology projects is called the Credit Union Return on Technology (CURT) according to References Denbo, Adam, and Rand. Guthrie. Prioritizing IT Projects: An Empirical Application of an IT Investment Model. http://www.iima.org/CIIMA/CIIMA%20V3%20N210%20Denbo.pdf

Dementia Interventions And Implications Health And Social Care Essay

Dementia Interventions And Implications Health And Social Care Essay Dementia is one of the leading causes of nonfatal disability in the developed world and by 2030 it is predicted that dementia will be the third leading cause of the years of life lost due to death and disability .Measured using the concept of disability adjusted life years (DALYS) which combines a measure of the average years of life lost due to disease with the years lived with disability Mathers and loncar (2006). Alzheimers society describes dementia as a term used to describe various different brain disorders that have in common a loss of brain function that is usually progressive and eventually severe there are over 100 different types of dementia. (All Parliamentary party groups on dementia 2009) reports, there are approximately 700,000 people in the UK today with dementia. That number will double up within 30 years and the financial cost of the dementia today is more than the cost of heart disease, cancer and stroke combined. In global burden disease WHO( 2003) it was estimate d that disability from dementia is higher than almost all conditions with the exceptions of spinal cord injury and terminal cancer .Dementia is a health and social care challenge of scale, we can no longer ignore it and government recognized this with national dementia strategy for England in February( 2009). Dementia is a significant life changing process affecting everyone in different ways .Different type of dementia affects individual people differently. My case study is about Mr. Roy who is diagnosed with Fronto temporal dementia who has progressive language loss and cognitive decline. As he suffers from primary progressive aphasia, all information gained from his wife .Jane. [I have changed all names of persons and places to protect confidentiality as followed by NMC guidelines.] Mr. Roy was a supervisor and driver for a company for 35 years, dedicated employee, he married Jane and had four children. Roys mum has history of undiagnosed psychotic problems. He always had abrupt mannerism, strict with everything and always wanted to be first. Although he was dedicated to his job and never had time for his family, Jane was the main carer of the family. She worked as manager of a residential home .She says that he never been there for my children. Roy was a lovely person when he married her, after she had four children, he was working as a supervisor for a company for 35 years. Roy lost his job when he could not accept the changes in work environment, when the company started to use the modern equipments. He started to behave inappropriately, he collected office documents and kept it on the top of the attic, as he does not like Changes Companys policies .He lost his job as this company moved to another place. He lost interest in his family life; he spent time in p ub and always had temporary lady friends and spends money for them, which always leaded him to have debts and borrowed from banks and building society, without knowing his wife. His wife had to face the summonses, bills and police cases for a long time. She continued to pay back .He had problems with managing accounts, records and names of children. Roy started to be very rude and argumentative pressure on his wife for money and spent it treating others in the pub. He had lots of temporary lady friends; his personality changed, he threatened his wife with a gun one day to find his way. His driving skills became poor, and he had a car crash but survived miraculously. He never mentioned with his car after this incident. Mr. Roy then isolated himself .He use to visit regularly to the place where the company was and travelled several times in a bus on the fixed route. He has been referred to the psychiatrist and diagnosed of anxiety, depression and he refused to undergo any treatment fo r 3 years. His condition become worse .Roys memory deteriorated. He admitted to the hospital due to his difficult behaviour pneumonia Mrs. Jane had to take voluntary retirement due to financial commitment and to look after Roy. Her daughter was very supportive to her other three children hated him, and never bothered about their dad. Roy then sectioned due to his difficult behaviour admitted in mental health unit, undergone a CT scan and diagnosed of Fronto temporal dementia. He moved to an EMI nursing home to manage his complex needs. Roy displays physical aggression both actual and threatening. Roy says do you want two black eyes. He will raise his fist and will attempt to slap the staffs faces. Roys inhibitions appears reduced which often results in socially inappropriate behaviours .Physical aggression towards fellow residents, Roy appears to have no insight to his own condition on others illness and safety. Roy is at high risk of absconding and has a past history of windows and absconding from the previous care settings .Roy is self neglect ,resistive towards personal care , his behaviour can be challenging when staff approach him regarding personal care .He has no concept of risk to himself or others ,he will invade peoples personal space and can become confrontational regardless of any age groups .When people ask Roy questions he will laugh inappropriately, mimic ,or answer inappropriately ,for example dont be stupid .His short term memory appears impaired to the place and date .Long term memory appears impaired and muddled . Roy believes that he was in the Navy, but his wife has told that this was incorrect .Some aspects of Roys long term memory are intact and he is able to recognize family members He likes to wear coat and tie all the time .Conversational skills are limited and superficial in style therefore further mental health assessment are difficult. Roy likes music and will play loud music with no concept to others. When his mood lowers Roy has a tendency to socially isolate himself ,He is currently prescribed antidepressants and his mood currently appears stable ,he has a sweet tooth , can be very demanding for particularly chocolate à ©clairs .He tends to get chest infections recurrently. Common causes of dementia are Alzheimers disease ,vascular dementia ,Korsakoffs syndrome ,Dementia with Lewy bodies Fronto temporal dementia ,Creutzfeldt Jacob syndrome ,Aids related cognitive impairment ,other rarer causes like Progressive Supranuclear palsy, and Bins angers disease. People with multiple Sclerosis, motor neuron disease, Parkinsons disease and Huntingtons disease can also at an increased risk of developing dementia. Younger onset of dementia is arbitrarily defined as beginning before the age of 65 years. It is much rarer than late on set of dementia (Harvey, 1998) the proportion of those with Fronto Temporal Dementia is thought to be higher in younger-on set group than among older people developing dementia. (Dale2003; Williams 2001) possibly posing stresses for family members. In addition , the social and psychological context of younger people with dementia is different from that of older people (Cox and Keady,1999; Tined all and Manthrope,1997)The term Fronto temporal dementia covers a range of condition including picks disease and dementia associated with motor neuron disease all are caused by damage to the frontal lobes and the temporal parts of the brain, these are responsible for the emotional responses and language skills Alzheimers society (factsheet404)explains the core features of FTD as defined by the Neary criteria are early decline in social and personal conduct, emotional blunting and loss of insight. Selective brain degeneration is seen in dorsolateral orbital and medical frontal cortex (Neary).Personality shifts in the direction of submissiveness are typical for FTD. Although extroversion can emerge in previously introverted individual s(Rankin, Kramer, Mychackand Miller(2003) points out that there is a shift from the warmth to coldness on personality scares .Changes in established religious or political believes and patterns of dress suggesting changes in the sense of self are common, respect for personal boundaries disappears, some patient stare and become overfriendly, taking openly to the strangers(including children),Increased trust for others make these patients vulnerable to financial scams or sexual exploitation. Indiscretion causes embarrassment to the family and disinhibited verbal outbursts or socially inappropriate behaviour is common. Miller (1997) describes the symptoms are Antisocial behaviours, often reflect poor judgement and impaired impu lse control. Impairment in personal conduct is a core feature .Some can be overactive with verbal and motor activities .where as others become inactive and withdrawn, some patients will fluctuate between over activity and apathy. Gregory and Hodges (1996)Kean Kalder, Hodges and young ,(2002),Rosen et al,(2004)Loss of concern for others and prominent emotional blunting tend to isolate the patient .A consolation of cognitive and emotional changes tocontributeto this emotional blunting .for example ,comprehension and expression .are deficient , and the inability to comprehend the emotions that others are feeling. That the others are feeling particularly better, negative emotions contributes to the feeling that the patient is no longer concerned about his or her loved ones, in addition, patients become self centred and tend to focus on their own particular needs and desires. In a medical crisis setting, patients may respond with inappropriate lack of concern , sometimes in a bizarre man ner (Johansson Hagberg,1989;Kramer et al: 2003) loss of executive functions leads to impaired multi tasking , shifting abstracting , making sound judgments , planning and problem solving the executive problems can be the first manifestaon of std proceeding behavioural deficits ( lindauetal ; 2000) poor performance at jobs leads these patients to get fired , and they tend to work at progressively simpler occupations. Similarly, catastrophic financial loss due to poor decision making is common prior to presentation at the physicians office (miller 1995) explains that preservative and stereo typed behaviours emerge in the middle stages of FTD, simple repetitive motor or verbal acts such as lips making, hand rubbing or humming are common. More complex behaviours such as collecting (garbage, rocks, stamps, plastic figures) wandering a fixed route or counting money, evolve in patients. Hyperorality manifests in over eating and changes in food preference to a certain type of food or even conception of inedible objects. Analysing this behaviour characteristics Mr Roy is exactly the same features we can see in him .Roys challenging behaviour can be the signs of distress anger, aggression anxiety, and withdrawal .As ( Kerr and Cunningaham2004 ) states that it is difficult to determine how person respond to the behaviour or responses of a person with dementia ,if we do not know what caused it for and how person interprets it .As Roy has a rare form of dementia with primary progressive dysphasia Patient with FTD also go on to develop speech and language problems during the evolution of disease, (Neary 1998 Pasquier, Lebert, Lavenu and Gallium, 1999). Depression occurs and many patients with FTD are diagnosed with depressive disorders before dementia is evident (miller 1991) depression has atypical features that are a clue to the real diagnosis. Loss of insight regarding behavioural changes, diminished empathy for others, denial of depression, changes, diminished empathy for others, denial of depression, apathy, and blunted affect are present, in many patients with FTD and depressive features. Psychotic features, such as delusions and hallucination, occur but are infrequent. Deficits in working memory, set shifting and generation are evident, episodic memory deficits can be prominent, leading to misdiagnosis of AD. (Lindau 2000) (Miller, Swartz Lesser, Darby, 1997) states that excessive smoking and alcohol or drug abuse can lead to the misdiagnosis of alcohol or drug addiction, patients with FTD tend to overeat in gluttonous manner. In clinical practice because many physicians are unfamiliar with its specific features FTLD is com monly misdiagnosed as AD. Decline in social and personal conduct, emotional blunting, loss of insight and progressive speech disorder develop early in the FLTD. (Dawn Brooker 2007) points out that understanding persons past history is crucial to providing person centred care, by looking at procedures for how key stories are known about and how these are communicated Person with dementia is central to this process although others such as family or professional carers can also derive considerable benefits from being involved . The process and its tangible outcomes assist communications and aid the development of positive relationships, Life story work therefore has a multiple benefits for various people. It is and activity that all the largely about the past, takes place in the present .it involves a series of intensive, non threatening highly personal discussions between the person disabled by dementia and responsive appreciative listener .As Roys dementia has progressed and is unable to gain any information from him . Cunningham (2006) Lack of awareness and knowledge about the needs of the patients with dementia can lead to challenging behav iour and misinterpretation of their needs. The ABC analysis of behaviour is a useful successful tool for understanding patients with Dementia. This system provides an opportunity to record all the factors which interact to create a challenging situation. (Wang and miller 2006) points out that many aspects of this disorder make it particularly troublesome for caregivers, including loss of empathy for others, apathy, diminished insight and inappropriate sound behaviours that characterize these patients. It can be argued that successful caring relationships are those here the person with Dementia is accepted just for what they are, not pressurised to become what they once were an impossible target for them to achieve. Kitwood was the first writer to use the term personhood in relation to people with dementia, he defined personhood as a standing or status that is bestowed upon what human being by other, in the context of the relationship and social being .It implies recognition, respect and trust. Brooker (2004) helpfully encapsulates the person -centred frame work in four areas valuing the person with dementia and those who provide care for them.(V)The individuality of each person with dementia ,(I),The important perspective of person with dementia (P) and the key role played by persons social environment person centred care involves the integration of these four elements. So the people with dementia and those who care for then truly seen as VIP`s. A senses frame work has been proposed by Nolan as a of understanding these triangular relationship between the person with dementia ,the relative and the care home staff .Six senses are highlighted .those are sense of security ,sense of belongings ,sense of continuity ,sense of purpose ,sense of achievement and sense of significance .For person with dementia living in a care home the two key sets of triangle relationship are first ,with family members and friends and second, with various members of staff provide care .the relationship with family and friends is vital in the context of the persons journey through life; the relationship with staff is vital in relation day to day comfort and satisfactions needs .Nolan et al argues (2003;2006) argue that these six senses are essential for the relationship that are mutually satisfied for all concerned .for each of six areas ,the person with dementia ,family member and care worker may experience this differently ,yet a gap in any of these areas will adversely affect the quality of relationship. (Woods ;Keady; bseddonch ;Diane 2007)explains that the person with dementia may feel secure and safe when he or she has a friendly smiling faces around, and physical needs are responding to promptly and gently (the family member may feel secure when she or he feel confident that the person is in good hands . and receiving good care .the care worker may feel secure when their job is not under threat . when they do not feel criticised and scrutinised for every action, and when they do not feel under threat or attack, whether physical or verbal. A study by CSCI (2008) of care homes has shown the quality of care staff, communication with people with dementia has a major impact on their quality of life .leadership ethos, of care home staff training; support and good development are crucial factors in supporting good practice. Jane hated Roy because his difficult behaviour and the stress she had before diagnosis. G.P`s were not aware of this dementia as it is rare form of dementia ,.A fundamental way facilitating carers involvement, is for the nurses and the carers to negotiate a relationship within which involvement can operate in a way that endorses the principles of good practice is already established .Walker. E and Jane, B (2001) Fronto temporal lobe degeneration strikes at relatively young age, so the disease often causes dramatic economic and social consequences before patients arrive in the clinic. The UK National service frame work for older people states that there should be specialist services for the younger people with dementia[DOH],(2001)National service frame work for long term Neurological Conditions advices that there should be person centred services ,early recognition ,prompt diagnosis treatment and early rehabilitation(DoH,2005) When Jane had to face the consequences of the challenging behaviours financially and emotionally for long periods as she was not getting enough help from the health professionals ,and lack of diagnosis and unaware of his type of dementia .the person with dementia will adjust with this naturally ,but it can be much more difficult for their loved ones, since they are distressed by what they lost . Miller and Wang (2003) Typical and Atypical antipsychotics have been used for controlling aggressive and psychotic symptoms. However considering the possible adverse response with deteriorating motor symptoms and dysphasia, antipsychotics should only be used as a last resort. An increasing number of structured or therapeutic activity-based interventions exist for people with dementia. Examples include reality orientation; cognitive stimulation therapy; music therapy; art, writing, dance and movement; drama; aromatherapy and sensory stimulation; intergenerational programmes Montessori-based methods; doll therapy; the SPECAL approach; emotion-oriented care; horticultural therapy and woodlands therapy. Reviews have revealed that the research evidence for most of these activities appears weak, however the visible positive effect they have on individuals and anecdotal evidence indicates that they are worthwhile and have Referances Kerr D. Cunningham c(2004)Finding the right response to people with Dementia .Nursing and residential care .6,11, 539-542. Harvey R.J (1998) Family Burden young onset of dementia Epidemiology, clinical symptoms, support and outcome London Imperial College. Walker E. Devar B.J. (2001) issues and innovations in Nursing Practice .How do we facilitate carer involvement in decision making? Journal of advanced Nursing 34(3) , 329-337. Conclusion The above study thus explains the severity of Dementia and its consequences if left unattended. As stated above the number of people getting affected by this disease is increasing at a very high rate. Thus this disease seems to pose a serious threat to mankind and its social existence. The time has come to commence large scale studies and experiments on this disease and thereby device a methodology/cure for this. Also WHO should promote awareness about this disease among common public to ensure early detection and thereby reducing further health risks.

Was The Enlightenment Really The Age of Reason? Essay -- Social Studie

â€Å"Reason does not work instinctively, but requires trial, practice, and instruction in order to gradually progress from one level of insight to another† Immanuel Kant. Kant’s opinion of reason is that it is a force, which is ever-evolving and constantly building on previous insights. The Enlightenment is a historical period referring to the intellectual movement that swept across Europe in the 18th century. To tackle this question, I will be looking at two texts. The essays, ‘An Answer to the Question: What is Enlightenment’ by Immanuel Kant, an 18th century philosopher, and ‘What is Enlightenment’ by Michel Foucault, a 20th century philosopher. The texts show that the Enlightenment was the age of reason because it allowed individuals to use reason in order to break free from the minority placed on their lives, the results of which are still influencing the world we live in today. Kant referred to the age in which he lived as an ‘age’ of enlightenment. He felt that human beings could often live in a state of â€Å"self-incurred minority.† This refers to the lack of courage in an individual, to use his own intellect (reason) without direction from someone else. The Oxford Dictionary defines reason as â€Å"the power of the mind to think, understand, and form judgments by a process of logic.† Although this is a modern definition of reason it is similar to the definition of reason in the Enlightenment era, where John Locke describes reason as â€Å"the discovery of the certainty or probability of such propositions or truths which the mind arrives at by deductions [inferences] made from such ideas which it has got by use of its natural faculties, viz. by sensation and reflection.† Kant states that having â€Å"a book that understands for me, a sp... ...d Reason, and their Distinct Provinces." Columbia University. http://www.ilt.columbia.edu/publications/Projects/digitexts/locke/understanding/chapter0418.html (accessed May 13, 2012). Camilleri, Kristian. Lecture 10: Thursday, March 29, 2012:Reason (MULT10016-Stream1) Sem1_2012. Podcast audio. Mp3, 55:01. Accessed March 29, 2012. http://content.lecture.unimelb.edu.au:8080/ess/echo/presentation/cc84f47f-47b9-4429-b55a-c24d3af7866f. Foucault, Michel. "Michel Foucault. What is Enlightenment?" MICHEL FOUCAULT, info. Pantheon Books. 1984. http://foucault.info/documents/whatIsEnlightenment/foucault.whatIsEnlightenment.en.html (accessed May 7, 2012). Oxford University Press. Reason. April 2010. http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/reason?region=us (accessed May 13, 2012). Burns, William E. Science in the Enlightenment. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2003.

Movie Review :: essays research papers

Michelle hears some noises in the house, after a while see finds out that its a missing girl, the girl is trying to get revenge for her death. First off, I would like to say that Michelle Phieffer is great in this movie; she carries her character strongly from start to finish. And unfortunately The movie opens with Pfeiffer and Ford taking their daughter to college, thus leaving them alone in their house for the first time since they were married. The daughter is actually the product of Pfeiffer's first marriage to a musician who now dead (by what means I can't remember, nor does it matter). Ford is a successful research scientist at a university in New England as was his even more famous father. He is on the verge of finishing a major paper, which requires him to spend endless hours at the office, leaving Pfeiffer alone in their vast home. It is a mystery, as a bored Pfeiffer spies on her new neighbors, a troubled couple who fight a lot. Around the same time that the next-door wife seemingly disappears, Pfeiffer starts experiencing poltergeist-like activity in her house. Doors won't stay shut, photos fall from ledges, and finally she starts seeing the image of a pretty blonde woman in reflections in fogged-up mirror and in the water of a full bathtub. Pfeiffer and Ford have a good and believable chemistry, and there are some genuine thrills generated when Pfeiffer is alone in the house. Anyway, eventually Pfeiffer discovers that in fact the next-door neighbor’s wife is alive and well. Except for one small thing, the blonde ghost is still causing trouble in the house. Pfeiffer begins to see a psychiatrist (the always reliable Joe Morton), believing that maybe she's suffering from some kind of empty-nest syndrome, but she soon realizes that the ghost is real and she sets out to find out who she is and why she's bugging her. Conclusion As Hatchet Harry said the story starts out with Pfeiffer's daughter from a previous marriage going off to college. She's dealing with the whole empty-nest syndrome, when the new neighbors next door start fighting, and the wife disappears. Pfeiffer is convinced that he's murdered her and starts spying on the husband who is now living alone in the house. Shortly after strange things start happening around the Pfeiffer-Ford house. You know, your usual haunting type activities like doors opening on their own, pictures falling off tables, radios switching on at full blast, bathtubs filling by themselves, yadda, yadda, yadda. Movie Review :: essays research papers Michelle hears some noises in the house, after a while see finds out that its a missing girl, the girl is trying to get revenge for her death. First off, I would like to say that Michelle Phieffer is great in this movie; she carries her character strongly from start to finish. And unfortunately The movie opens with Pfeiffer and Ford taking their daughter to college, thus leaving them alone in their house for the first time since they were married. The daughter is actually the product of Pfeiffer's first marriage to a musician who now dead (by what means I can't remember, nor does it matter). Ford is a successful research scientist at a university in New England as was his even more famous father. He is on the verge of finishing a major paper, which requires him to spend endless hours at the office, leaving Pfeiffer alone in their vast home. It is a mystery, as a bored Pfeiffer spies on her new neighbors, a troubled couple who fight a lot. Around the same time that the next-door wife seemingly disappears, Pfeiffer starts experiencing poltergeist-like activity in her house. Doors won't stay shut, photos fall from ledges, and finally she starts seeing the image of a pretty blonde woman in reflections in fogged-up mirror and in the water of a full bathtub. Pfeiffer and Ford have a good and believable chemistry, and there are some genuine thrills generated when Pfeiffer is alone in the house. Anyway, eventually Pfeiffer discovers that in fact the next-door neighbor’s wife is alive and well. Except for one small thing, the blonde ghost is still causing trouble in the house. Pfeiffer begins to see a psychiatrist (the always reliable Joe Morton), believing that maybe she's suffering from some kind of empty-nest syndrome, but she soon realizes that the ghost is real and she sets out to find out who she is and why she's bugging her. Conclusion As Hatchet Harry said the story starts out with Pfeiffer's daughter from a previous marriage going off to college. She's dealing with the whole empty-nest syndrome, when the new neighbors next door start fighting, and the wife disappears. Pfeiffer is convinced that he's murdered her and starts spying on the husband who is now living alone in the house. Shortly after strange things start happening around the Pfeiffer-Ford house. You know, your usual haunting type activities like doors opening on their own, pictures falling off tables, radios switching on at full blast, bathtubs filling by themselves, yadda, yadda, yadda.

Apple: the Leader in Computer and Mobile Technologies Essay

Apple had been a very successful company since its foundation in 1976. It has been a leader in the computer and mobile technologies field since its first release of the Apple- I to the most recent revolutionary product, the iPad. Through its core competencies innovative design, advanced technology, ease of use, and premium pricing strategy; the company has always positioned itself as a quality leader. Despite their disadvantage in pricing, Apple has seen consistent success throughout its history, specifically since the release of its new mobile devices, as is evidenced by the 15-fold increase of its share price since 2003. Since its early years, Apple has had a drive for innovation and excellence, striving to release new hit products every six to twelve months. This strategy has been greatly successful for the company, as their new products are redefining the industry every year. These products can continue to be refined and perfected to appeal exactly to the company’s target market. However, Apple can still improve its positioning by targeting solely towards the home consumer and by staying ahead of its competitors in its product innovation. With the release of the iPod in 2001 and the subsequent introduction of the iTunes Music Store in 2003, Apple had created a dominant position for themselves in the sale of mp3s and mp3 players. The iPod, like all of Apple’s products, had a significantly higher price than the mp3 players of its largest competitors. However, the iPod’s sleek design, simple user interface, large memory, and most importantly, unique compatibility with iTunes, the world’s largest music library, all but guaranteed its success in the consumer marketplace. Profits from music sales remained low due to a high cost structure. Though as song sales numbers boomed with low profits, iPod sales rose alongside. Sales through the iTunes Store provided a loss leader for the much more profitable iPods. Though new products have become available in recent years, the iPod remains an extremely effective business segment as Apple made over $12 billion in 2009 on the iPod and other music products. [†¦] Another Apple innovation would come in 2007 with the release of the iPhone. The company spent years of research in secrecy â€Å"recreating the phone† and took the difficult to enter industry by storm. The iPhone was similar to many other modern smartphones with the exception of its 3.5 inch touchscreen technology. The iPhone appealed to the home consumer due to its intuitivism, matching Apple’s core competencies to the home consumer’s perceived value. AT&T, the sole provider of the iPhone to consumers, would not issue a subsidy on the phone which ran at an average of about $200 more than competitors’ versions of the smartphone. [†¦] [†¦] With more competitors poised to jump into the computer tablet industry, Apple needs to take a stand to differentiate their product from the competitors. I suggest that Apple does this by combining the three of their products into one, well-rounded, all-inclusive, entertainment hub that captures your original vision. The new premium iPad would offer phone capabilities with the assistance of a new hands free headset designed to be similar to the Bluetooth. This new wireless headset would allow the user to remotely control the phone and music aspects of their premium iPad. [†¦] [†¦] The ability for a consumer to walk into one of the many Apple Store locations and download and stream a movie of their choice on a same Apple TV would nearly sell the product itself, as has been the case for all of the products Apple features in its retail locations. However, these costs would be miniscule to the revenues Apple could earn from following this unstoppable trend while it is still budding. Using Porter’s 5-Forces, it is clear to see that this industry is ready to be attacked by Apple. [†¦] [†¦] Conclusions and recommendations After analyzing the company and looking at its strengths, weaknesses, core competencies and strategic positioning, I feel I have been able to identify some problems as well as some opportunities for Apple Inc. in the short and long term. My recommended action plan focuses on improving the already thriving markets of the iPhone and iPad, as well as maintaining their market share and differentiating them against the competition. Also, I have suggested that Apple Inc. should revisit a project they have experimented with in the past and try to capitalize on the next unstoppable trend in today’s society. [†¦]

Main Causes of Culture Shock Essay

Stepping out of one’s comfort zone is not an easy step to take, not to mention stepping into a foreign land. Culture shock is one of the very common problems many face, especially when travelling abroad. For the purpose of this essay, the term â€Å"culture shock† refers to the unfamiliar feeling of a new atmosphere when in another country. It also refers to the ability to adapt experience and accept another country’s culture. The main reasons of culture shock are difference in values, loneliness, as well as daily life challenges. To begin with, one of the main causes which contribute to the feeling of culture shock is due to the difference in values. Values may differ in terms of religion, laws, traditions, and customs. Many embarking on a journey to a foreign land have to accept and learn the foreign country’s values in order to be able to enjoy the richness of the local culture. However it may seem to be very difficult to accept the new values as it differs too much from another country’s culture, thus causing culture shock. A good example would be that many international students might have difficulties adopting the new values which the foreign country adopts, and might feel homesick due to the culture shock. Therefore, the difference in values is one of the main causes of culture shock. In addition, another cause of culture shock is due to the feeling of loneliness. The feeling of loneliness can cause many adverse effects, causing depression and anxiety. Many suffer from culture shock due to loneliness because, like a child in school for the first time, there are no familiar faces to be seen anywhere. It is a frightening experience as in a foreign land there might be a language barrier and a difference the lifestyle which may hinder the process of socialising and cause loneliness. A good example would be when international students live in home stays they might feel a sense of loneliness due to the fact that the environment in the home stay as well as the food served differs a lot from the student’s home back in their homeland. Therefore, loneliness is indeed another main cause of culture shock. The last and most important cause of culture shock is the daily life challenges. Like a fish out of the water, it is a very new environment when in a foreign country. The weather, transport, language to speak in becomes a challenge, as each country has its own individuality. It can be a daily struggle for many to adapt to these major differences and would take awhile to get used to the new environment. A good example would be that many migrants would take at least a month to climatise to the new temperatures as unlike Saudi Arabia with extremely hot weathers, countries like New Zealand have very cold temperatures. Thus, daily life challenges are the most important reason for culture shock as it is not easy to adapt to a new environment. To sum it up, culture shock is caused by the contrasts in beliefs and principles, it is also caused by the initial stages of feeling isolated from home and lastly it is also caused by the problems faced on a day to day basis. Perhaps the most important reason is the problems faced on a day to day basis. This is so as it would cause a significant amount of inconvenience and adapting to the individual for a period of time, thus undergoing a transition period to cope with culture shock.

Music in the Late 90s and 2000s

Compare and Contrast Music in the Late 90s and 2000s As all of us know, music is the universal language. It is the art of expressing and interpreting an opinion or expression through the creation of sound; and it certainly has histories of many centuries and periods since the existence of human. The question is- would you consider music as a necessity in your daily life? Well, I would easily agree to it; with more quotes popping up recently that are related to music, such as, ‘No Music, No Life’, and ‘Music is the Essence of Life’.These quotes never fail to prove how strongly music influences in all our daily lives. However, music is created very uniquely and differently in every century and here we are now, to compare and contrast between music in the late 90s and in the late 2000s, in terms of the style, the presentation, and the genres. From J. S. Bach, to W. A. Mozart, to Ludwig Van Beethoven, to Claude Debussy, to Scott Joplin, to Miles Davis, to The Be atles, and then to the current Justin Bieber; these people are to be said as the ‘icon’ of their century.Each of them showed progression of music along the century; portraying individualistic in music of the century. As for music in the late 90s and 2000s, contrasts in their musical style and elements have been clearly shown through their music. Judging by the music in the late 90s music, musical instruments used seemed to be more original in the sense of its sound and timbre produced compared to the more technology infused music in the 2000s.This creates a huge contrast in both musical style as the sources of the sound produced is very much differ from each other. Besides that, the song lyric in the late 90s music can be judged as more meaningful compared to the 2000s- more insightful lyrics were incorporated in the 90s with more decent vocabulary compared to the more trendy lyrics style in 2000s with more foulness and wildness usage of vocabulary in expressing a music .This clearly shows the influences of generation in the past and in the present that indirectly influence their musical style in music of the century. Next, how do we audience perceive a kind of music? This is a general question with a general answer; which is presentation of the music itself. A presentation of the music is affected mainly by its outlook- recording. In the 90s, the quality of the music recording seemed to be not as excellent as the ones in 2000s; due to the progression of technology at that period.However, music in the late 90s provides and instills good vibes and awareness of quality music into the society with its positively contented music compared to music in the 2000s which concentrated more on catchy and trendy music videos for publication to attract more audiences while neglecting the education of music towards the society’s mind- videos are recorded with more sexual and violent actions incorporated are indeed deluding and corrupting the generation of the century.This shows how a presentation of a music recording affects the perception of the audiences towards the music in the late 90s and the 2000s. Last but not least, technology does play a critical role in music. Evidence could be seen with the increment of music genre that is well equipped with technology influences, especially through the music progress from the 90s to the 2000s.In the 90s, the music produced are played with more authentic musical instruments, such as piano/keyboard, drums, guitars, and etc; while in the 2000s, the music are more technology based with frequent usage of synthesizer which is capable of switching to many types of instruments’ sounds and even have a function to play the drum beats in the background while you play the synthesizer, thus replacing the role of few musical instruments.The dominance of contrast between music in the 90s and the 2000s is clearly seen with the genre of music the century focused on, which is pop/rap/rock music in t he 90s and trance/techno/rock metal music in 2000s which obviously prove the influences of technology in music of 2000s. Music is deeply engaged in our daily lives without any doubts, whether we are in the 90s or the 2000s.There is no ‘better’ music through comparison of music from different era. It is purely based on one’s preferences and understanding towards it. Music from the late 90s and the 2000s has strongly showed the musical style of their own with the contrasts found in their music, as stated above. Let us just embrace and appreciate music as it is instead of holding grudges towards them! Reference http://www. thepeoplehistory. com/90smusic. html

Support Children and Young People’s Health and Safety Essay

1.1 Describe how current health and safety legislation; policies and procedures are implemented in the setting. Any policy or procedure, which defines or relates to the health and safety of all individuals in a school, is written in compliance with the Health and Safety at work Act 1974 as this is the legislation and by law must be abided by. Legislation Legislations are set by the law and are adhered to by making rules, policies and procedures for anywhere that is required to follow them, such as in a school setting. The head teacher is responsible for health and safety legislation, ensuring the school meets the objectives which are set out within its own policies and that the procedures are actively applied and updated regularly and revised, also that all health and safety guidance issued by the local authority is available to all staff and that the appropriate training is offered to help the staff perform these tasks. To ensure the environment is safe for the children the legislation requires risk assessments to be carried out at regular intervals for each room and outside space they use. This ensures all equipment is well maintained, age appropriate and safe to use and ensuring good hygiene standards are met. The law provides a number of different acts, which must be followed by schools in order to make sure children and its staff, are kept safe. Some of the current legislations in place at the moment are: Health and Safety at work Act 1974 The children’s Act 1989 RIDDOR 2013 COSHH 2002 UN Convention on rights of child Read more:  Essay on Children Health and Safety The health and safety at work act is implemented in my school, this ensures that not only the children are kept safe and out of danger but also the staff within the school too. The staff also need to know what they need to do in order to keep themselves and the children safe from any dangers they could/ may find around the school the school. They are required to report any hazards they find to the relevant person, follow the schools safety policy, make sure that their actions do not harm themselves or others, use any safety equipment provided and ensure all equipment is safe and appropriate. The school by law is required to have a health and safety policy, this gives information to all staff to make sure the school is kept as safe as possible. All new staff joining the school is provided with relevant training in health and safety and what to do in an emergency. There is also a health and safety policy for staff, which they must read and sign to agree to adhere to all points in the p olicy. Staff must ensure that any actions, which they take, are not likely to cause any harm or dangers to others within the school. This will include cleaning and tidying up of any equipment after use to ensure there is no risk of any potential risk occurring. For various jobs within the school such as handling food, doing experiments or attending to first aid incidents protective and safety equipment is provided and must be worn. This will be wearing plastic gloves and aprons whilst handling food to stop contamination, wearing Hi Viz jackets when off site to ensure staff and children are fully visible at all times. When using any materials and equipment within the classroom there are certain safety regulations they must meet to ensure they are fully safe and usable. Here are a couple of examples: The children’s act 1989 stipulates that as a school we must protect the children as far as we can when they are in our care and prevent any risks, which may occur. In my school this is implemented by ensuring all staff remain vigilant at all times by removing any risks such as coats and lunch boxes on the floor or in corridors, chairs left sticking out or wet floors where anyone can slip over. These risks can easily be removed ensuring a  safe environment is maintained, but some hazards are not able to be as easily removed so all staff need to be aware of the procedures of reporting concerns through management. The act also allows children to be healthy by having a fruit as a free snack and ensuring fruit and vegetables are available as a choice at dinner times, this encourages them to have their 5 a day. It requires children not only to be safe but to feel safe within their school environment this is ensured by having locked gates and CCTV on all gates ensuring only those permitted are allowed on the grounds. The school has an obligation under this act to ensure all staff are fully CRB checked, qualified and given regular training to ensure they keep to date with the ever changing legislations and policies. RIDDOR (Reporting of Injuries, diseases and dangerous occurrences). This is a legislation regarding reporting and record keeping of injuries. It sets out which illness and injuries need to be reported to the Health and safety executive or the local authority. It is set out within the schools health and safety policy the procedures, which need to be followed for these occurrences, and the legislation sets out which ones need reporting. Every school needs to have an accident book and injuries need to be documented in there. COSHH (The control of substances Hazardous to health regulations). The use of hazardous substances within schools can present hazards to staff and children so measures need to be put in place to eliminate any injuries occurring. The legislation also states that when using any hazardous chemicals protective clothing and equipment must be provided and used. Every school must be COSHH compliant. The picture below shows examples of Hazard symbols which will be visible on any hazardous chemicals and defines which ones need to be kept in a locked cupboard as may cause an injury. The UN convention on rights of a child is a treaty, which was drawn up by the governments worldwide to promise all children the same rights no matter who they are or where they come from. This is implemented in the school by ensuring all equipment and materials used are targeted for the specific age, so age and stage appropriate. This will also include making sure the desks and chairs are the correct size for the age of the children. Policies Schools must have policies to ensure the children and staffs are kept safe. There are many different policies within a school, which they draw up as their own guidelines for how the legislation is to be followed on the school premises. Some of the policies that are in place to set out how to adhere to the health and safety act are: Accident and Incident policy Site security Policy Visitors to the school Hazardous substances Policy Vehicular movement on site policy Critical incident policy Procedures Wherever there is a policy in place there will always be procedures in place too, these are set to show and tell you how the policy will be adhered to. This is quite clearly shown within the fire policy, it shows exactly what must happen in case of a fire or a drill and where everyone needs to meet and who needs to do what to ensue a safe exit is made by all. 1.2 Describe how health and safety is monitored and maintained in the setting. Health and safety is monitored and maintained in a number of ways within the school, there is a Health and safety policy, which all staff are given and must read, they are required to sign to declare they understand and will  fully comply to it. This will outline their main areas of responsibilities and the procedures for doing so. Staff training needs to be kept current and up to date so any amendments in the legislation or policies need to be passed on and implemented by all staff members quickly. Risk assessments are carried out regularly by the schools health and safety officer, this is done every six months to ensure all tools, equipment and the environment are fully safe and compliant. All electrical equipment should have the annual up to date approved PAT tested sticker on to confirm it is safe to use. Fire extinguishers should be checked annually and recorded on the outside of it. These tests ensure the equipment is fully maintained and fit for purpose. On a daily basis all staff should remain vigilant to prevent any hazards occurring, by constant monitoring and the removal of any dangers will ensure a safe and healthy environment for the children to learn in. Dangers can be coats and lunch boxes lying on the floor causing a trip hazard, water on the floor from the sink, chairs being left out, the classroom being at the wrong temperature or defected furniture. These are all dangers, which can easily be removed, but some hazards will need reporting and these should be recorded and reported immediately before an accident or incident occurs. A risk assessment is always carried out before any out of school visit can take place. This will ascertain what could go wrong and how that can be prevented. The school has a school trip policy and within that are procedures to follow if certain instances were to occur. Within the assessment it will outline all responsibilities for all members of staff attending on the visit Fire drills are practised every six months to ensure everyone in the school knows and adheres to the policy and fully follows all the procedures which are in place to ensure a quick and safe exit is made from the building to the specified fire meeting place. Regular staff meeting are held, where health and safety is always top priority on the agenda. Staff are reminded of any issues and informed of  any specific hazard, which may have arisen. Audits are always done on accidents and incidents, this is to monitor why and how they have occurred and what preventative measures can be put in place to minimise the risks of them reoccurring. 1.3 Describe how people in the setting are made aware of risks and hazards and encouraged to work safely All staff need to be aware of and are responsible for being vigilant at all times on health and safety matters. They need to be aware of the procedures of reporting concerns through management. Health and safety should be on the agenda and discussed at all staff meetings, any concerns, which are raised, should be dealt with immediately. Staff at all times should be visually monitoring, checking fire doors are clear, shelves are safe, equipment is safe and fit for use, etc. Safety checks should be routinely carried out on a regular basis. The head teacher should have a regular walk around to check there are no hazards, which have gone unreported. If a hazard is found then the correct procedures should be followed, reported and dealt with as soon as possible. All electrical equipment is required to be PAT tested annually and display an approved sticker on it confirming its safe to use and the date the test is next due. If the equipment is past its inspection date the equipment should not be used and a notice put on it saying, â€Å" do not use†. PAT test needs to be carried out by a qualified electrician, Fire extinguishers also need to be checked annually and the date of all checks and maintenance should be recorded and labelled on them. Staff and others in the school need to think about health and safety at all times, if there is a spillage a wet floor sign needs to be immediately placed around the area to warn people of the slip hazard. The spillage can then be cleaned up as soon as possible. The school is required to carry out annual risk assessment to ascertain which areas of the school are most  hazardous and ensure every measure is taken to minimise the risk of any accidents occurring. The school has a health and safety policy, which sets guidelines the staff, must follow relating to all health and safety issues within the school, procedures are quite clearly set ensuring all staff are fully aware of what they need to do if an incident or emergency was to occur. This ensures the school is a safe as possible environment. All new staff are provided with a copy of this policy which they must read and sign to agree to abide by it all times. They are given health and safety training and told what they need to do in emergencies.. All staff working in school has the responsibility to ensure that children are cared for and safe. The Children’s Act 1989 requires that we protect children as far as we can when they are in our care. By taking a balanced approach to risk management will ensure we are abiding by this act. Children as well as staff in school need to be aware of risks and hazards and are taught to keep themselves as safe as possible. There are a variety of ways in school we teach and show the children about health and safety issues they need to be aware of, here are a few: Posters around the school on hygiene Safety and hazard symbols they need to be aware of Allowing the children to take part in carrying out the risk assessments Signs around the school they need to adhere to Ensuring they know what and when to report issues to adults Hand washing pictures I the toilet PSCO visits to teach the children about stranger danger Fire officers to teach children about fire risks and how to leave a building quickly and safely in the event of a fire. Schools have eco warriors to help look after the environment ensuring it is safe and secure at all times Teaching they know about balanced risk management.